1. Field of the Invention
The technical field of the invention relates to growth and differentiation factor-8 (GDF-8) antagonists, in particular, antibodies against GDF-8, e.g., mouse, human and humanized antibodies and their fragments, particularly those that inhibit GDF-8 activity in vitro and/or in vivo. The field further relates to treating, ameliorating, preventing, prognosing, or monitoring GDF-8-associated disorders, e.g., muscle disorders, neuromuscular disorders, bone degenerative disorders, metabolic or induced bone disorders, adipose disorders, glucose metabolism disorders or insulin-related disorders, particularly amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (“ALS”).
2. Related Background Art
Growth and differentiation factor-8 (GDF-8), also known as myostatin, is a secreted protein and member of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily of structurally related growth factors. Members of this superfamily possess growth-regulatory and morphogenetic properties (Kingsley et al. (1994) Genes Dev. 8:133-46; Hoodless et al. (1998) Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 228:235-72). Human GDF-8 is synthesized as a 375 amino acid precursor protein that forms a homodimer complex. During processing, the amino-terminal propeptide, known as the “latency-associated peptide” (LAP), is cleaved and may remain noncovalently bound to the homodimer, forming an inactive complex designated the “small latent complex” (Miyazono et al. (1988) J. Biol. Chem. 263:6407-15; Wakefield et al. (1988) J. Biol. Chem. 263:7646-54; Brown et al. (1999) Growth Factors 3:35-43; Thies et al. (2001) Growth Factors 18:251-59; Gentry et al. (1990) Biochemistry 29:6851-57; Derynck et al. (1995) Nature 316:701-05; Massague (1990) Ann. Rev. Cell Biol. 12:597-641). Proteins such as follistatin and its relatives also bind mature GDF-8 homodimers and inhibit GDF-8 biological activity (Gamer et al. (1999) Dev. Biol. 208:222-32).
An alignment of the deduced GDF-8 amino acid sequence from various species demonstrates that GDF-8 is highly conserved (McPherron et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94:12457-61). The sequences of human, mouse, rat, porcine, and chicken GDF-8 are 100% identical in the C-terminal region, while baboon, bovine, and ovine GDF-8 differ by a mere 3 amino acids at the C-terminus. The high degree of GDF-8 conservation across species suggests that GDF-8 has an essential physiological function.
GDF-8 has been shown to play a major role in the regulation of muscle development and homeostasis by inhibiting both proliferation and differentiation of myoblasts and satellite cells (Lee and McPherron (1999) Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 9:604-07; McCroskery et al. (2003) J. Cell. Biol. 162:1135-47). It is expressed early in developing skeletal muscle, and continues to be expressed in adult skeletal muscle, preferentially in fast twitch types. Additionally, GDF-8 overexpressed in adult mice results in significant muscle loss (Zimmers et al. (2002) Science 296:1486-88). Also, natural mutations that render the GDF-8 gene inactive have been shown to cause both hypertrophy and hyperplasia in both animals and humans (Lee and McPherron (1997) supra). For example, GDF-8 knockout transgenic mice are characterized by a marked hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the skeletal muscle and altered cortical bone structure (McPherron et al. (1997) Nature 387:83-90; Hamrick et al. (2000) Bone 27:343-49). Similar increases in skeletal muscle mass are evident in natural GDF-8 mutations in cattle (Ashmore et al. (1974) Growth 38:501-07; Swatland et al. (1994) J. Anim. Sci. 38:752-57; McPherron et al., supra; Kambadur et al. (1997) Genome Res. 7:910-15). In addition, various studies indicate that increased GDF-8 expression is associated with HIV-induced muscle wasting (Gonzalez-Cadavid et al. (1998) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95:14938-43). GDF-8 has also been implicated in the production of muscle-specific enzymes (e.g., creatine kinase) and myoblast proliferation (WO 00/43781).
In addition to its growth-regulatory and morphogenetic properties, GDF-8 is believed to participate in numerous other physiological processes, including glucose homeostasis during type 2 diabetes development, impaired glucose tolerance, metabolic syndromes (i.e., a syndrome such as, e.g., syndrome X, involving the simultaneous occurrence of a group of health conditions, which may include insulin resistance, abdominal obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, chronic inflammation, a prothrombotic state, etc., that places a person at high risk for type 2 diabetes and/or heart disease), insulin resistance (e.g., resistance induced by trauma such as burns or nitrogen imbalance), and adipose tissue disorders (e.g., obesity, dyslipidemia, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, etc.) (Kim et al. (2000) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 281:902-06).
A number of human and animal disorders are associated with functionally impaired muscle tissue, e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (“ALS”), muscular dystrophy (“MD”; including Duchenne's muscular dystrophy), muscle atrophy, organ atrophy, frailty, congestive obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), sarcopenia, cachexia, and muscle wasting syndromes caused by other diseases and conditions. Currently, few reliable or effective therapies exist to treat these disorders. The pathology of these diseases indicates a potential role for GDF-8 signaling as a target in the treatment of these diseases.
ALS is a late onset and fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by degeneration of the central nervous system and muscle atrophy. ALS typically initiates with abnormalities in gait and loss of dexterity, and then progresses to paralysis of limbs and diaphragm. While most cases of ALS are sporadic and are of unknown etiology, 5-10% of cases have been shown to result from dominant familial (FALS) inheritance. Approximately 10-20% of FALS cases are attributed to mutations in the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene (reviewed in Bruijn et al. (2004) Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 27:723-49). SOD1 is a heterodimeric metallo-protein that catalyzes the reaction of superoxide into hydrogen peroxide and diatomic oxygen, and as loss of SOD1 does not result in motor neuron disease (Reaume et al. (1996) Nat. Genet. 13:43-47), it is believed to induce disease by toxic gain of function (reviewed in Bruijn et al., supra). The specific mechanisms of SOD1-induced neuronal cell death are unclear, and may involve alterations in axonal transport, cellular responses to misfolded protein, mitochondrial dysfunction, and excitotoxicity (Bruijn et al., supra).
The degeneration of motor neurons observed in ALS may occur via multiple mechanisms, including uptake or transport disruption of trophic factors by motor neurons (reviewed in Holzbaur (2004) Trends Cell Biol. 14:233-40). Thus, ALS might be treated by therapies that rejuvenate a degenerating neuron by providing an optimal survival environment. A nerve's environment includes nonneuronal cells such as glia and the muscle cells innervated by the motor neuron. This environment provides trophic and growth factors that are endocytosed by the neuron and transported via retrograde axonal transport to the cell body (Chao (2003) Neuron 39:1-2; Holzbaur, supra).
FALS has been modeled in both mouse and rat by the overexpression of mutant SOD1 (Howland et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99:1604-09). Transgenic mice overexpressing the G93A form of mutant SOD1 display muscle weakness and atrophy by 90 to 100 days of age, and typically die near 130 days of age (Gurney et al. (1994) Science 264:1772-75). However, the underlying SODG93A-induced pathology, which includes grip strength weakness and loss of neuromuscular junctions, is significant as early as 50 days of age (Frey et al. (2000) J. Neurosci. 20:2534-42; Fisher et al. (2004) Exp. Neuro. 185:232-40; Ligon et al. (2005) NeuroReport 16:533-36; Wooley et al. (2005) Muscle Nerve 32:43-50). Transgenic rats expressing the SODG93A mutation follow a similar time course of degeneration (Howland et al., supra). Recent work has suggested that the development of pathology is not cell autonomous, consistent with the hypothesis that the degeneration of motor neurons observed in ALS occurs via multiple mechanisms, including the disruption of uptake and transport of trophic factors by the motor neuron (see above). Clement and coworkers have used chimeric mice to show that wild type nonneuronal cells can extend survival of motor neurons expressing mutant SOD1 (Clement et al. (2003) Science 302:113-17). These observations have led to the investigation of therapies that might slow neuronal degeneration by providing an optimal microenvironment for survival. For example, treatment of the SODG93A mouse via direct intramuscular injection of virally expressed growth factors (including IGF-1, GDNF and VEGF) prolongs animal survival (Kaspar et al. (2003) Science 301:839-42; Azzouz et al. (2004) Nature 429:413-17; Wang et al. (2002) 1 Neurosci. 22:6920-28). In addition, muscle-specific expression of a local IGF-1-specific isoform (mIGF-1) stabilizes neuromuscular junctions, enhances motor neuron survival and delays onset and progression of disease in the SODG93A transgenic mouse model, indicating that direct effects on muscle can impact disease onset and progression in transgenic SOD1 animals (Dobrowolny et al. (2005) J. Cell Biol. 168:193-99). Links between muscle hypermetabolism and motor neuron vulnerability have also been reported in ALS mice, supporting the hypothesis that defects in muscle may contribute to the disease etiology (Dupois et al. (2004) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101:11159-64). Thus, enhancing muscle growth should provide improved local support for motor neurons, and therefore result in therapeutic benefits.
Inhibition of myostatin expression leads to both muscle hypertrophy and hyperplasia (Lee and McPherron, supra; McPherron et al., supra). Myostatin negatively regulates muscle regeneration after injury, and lack of myostatin in GDF-8 null mice results in accelerated muscle regeneration (McCroskery et al., (2005) J. Cell. Sci. 118:3531-41). Myostatin-neutralizing antibodies increase body weight, skeletal muscle mass, and muscle size and strength in the skeletal muscle of wild type mice (Whittemore et al. (2003) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 300:965-71) and the mdx mouse, a model for muscular dystrophy (Bogdanovich et al. (2002) Nature 420:418-21; Wagner et al. (2002) Ann. Neurol. 52:832-36). Furthermore, myostatin antibody in these mice decreased the damage to the diaphragm, a muscle that is also targeted during ALS pathogenesis. It has been hypothesized that the action of growth factors, such as HGF, on muscle may be due to inhibition of myostatin expression (McCroskery et al. (2005), supra), thereby helping to shift the “push and pull,” or balance, between regeneration and degeneration in a positive direction. Thus, GDF-8 inhibition presents as a potential pharmacological target for the treatment of ALS, muscular dystrophy (MD), and other GDF-8-associated disorders, e.g., neuromuscular disorders for which it is desirable to increase muscle mass, strength, size, etc. With the availability of animal models (mouse and rat) of ALS, it is possible to test therapeutics in two different species, thus increasing the confidence of therapeutic effects in humans in vivo.
In addition to neuromuscular disorders in humans, there are also growth factor-related conditions associated with a loss of bone, such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis, which predominantly affect the elderly and/or postmenopausal women. In addition, metabolic bone diseases and disorders include low bone mass due to chronic glucocorticoid therapy, premature gonadal failure, androgen suppression, vitamin D deficiency, secondary hyperparathyroidism, nutritional deficiencies, and anorexia nervosa. Although many current therapies for these conditions function by inhibiting bone resorption, a therapy that promotes bone formation would be a useful alternative treatment. Because GDF-8 plays a role in bone development as well as muscular development, regulation of GDF-8 is also an excellent pharmacological target for the treatment of bone-degenerative disorders.
Thus, a need exists to develop compounds and methods of treatment that contribute to an overall increase in muscle mass and/or strength and/or bone density, etc., particularly in humans, and particularly in those suffering from ALS and other muscle-wasting diseases as well as bone-degenerative disorders. Generating neutralizing antibodies and other small molecules with enhanced affinity to GDF-8 is an excellent pharmacological approach to treat these disorders.